SUMMARY

Cells, tissues, organs and organ systems split up the work in a way that ensures the survival of the body as a whole and exhibit division of labour. A tissue is defined as group of cells along with intercellular substances performing one or more functions in the body. Epithelia are sheet like tissues lining the body’s surface and its cavities, ducts and tubes. Epithelia have one free surface facing a body fluid or the outside environment. Their cells are structurally and functionally connected at junctions.

Diverse types of connective tissues bind together, support, strengthen, protect, and insulate other tissue in the body. Soft connective tissues consist of protein fibres as well as a variety of cells arranged in a ground substance. Cartilage, bone, blood, and adipose tissue are specialised connective tissues. Cartilage and bone are both structural materials. Blood is a fluid tissue with transport functions. Adipose tissue is a reservoir of stored energy. Muscle tissue, which can contract (shorten) in response to stimulation, helps in movement of the body and specific body parts. Skeletal muscle is the muscle tissue attached to bones. Smooth muscle is a component of internal organs. Cardiac muscle makes up the contractile walls of the heart. Connective tissue covers all three types of tissues. Nervous tissue exerts greatest control over the response of body. Neurons are the basic units of nervous tissue.

Earthworm, Cockroach and Frog show characteristic features in body organisation. In Pheretima posthuma (earthworm), the body is covered by cuticle. All segments of its body are alike except the 14th, 15th and 16th segment, which are thick and dark and glandular, forming clitellum. A ring of S-shaped chitinous setae is found in each segment. These setae help in locomotion. On the ventral side spermathecal openings are present in between the grooves of 5 and 6, 6 and 7, 7 and 8 and 8 and 9 segments. Female genital pores are present on 14th segment and male genital pores on 18th segment. The alimentary canal is a narrow tube made of mouth, buccal cavity, pharynx, gizzard, stomach, intestine and anus. The blood vascular system is of closed type with heart and valves. Nervous system is represented by ventral nerve cord. Earthworm is hermaphorodite. Two pairs of testes occur in the 10th and 11th segment, respectively. A pair of ovaries are present on 12 and 13th intersegmental septum. It is a protandrous animal with crossfertilisation. Fertilisation and development take place in cocoon secreted by the glands of clitellum.

The body of Cockroach (Periplaneta americana) is covered by chitinous exoskeleton. It is divided into head, thorax and abdomen. Segments bear jointed appendages. There are three segments of thorax, each bearing a pair of walking legs. Two pairs of wings are present, one pair each on 2nd and 3rd segment. There are ten segments in abdomen. Alimentary canal is well developed with a mouth surrounded by mouth parts, a pharynx, oesophagus, crop, gizzard, midgut, hindgut and anus. Hepatic caecae are present at the junction of foregut and midgut. Malpighian tubules are present at the junction of midgut and hindgut and help in excretion. A pair of salivary gland is present near crop. The blood vascular system is of open type. Respiration takes place by network of tracheae. Trachea opens outside with spiracles. Nervous system is represented by segmentally arranged ganglia and ventral nerve cord. A pair of testes is present in 4 th-6th segments and ovaries in 2nd-6th segments. Fertilisation is internal. Female produces 9-10 ootheca bearing developing embryos. After rupturing of single ootheca sixteen young ones, called nymphs come out.

The Indian bullfrog, Rana tigrina, is the common frog found in India. Body is covered by skin. Mucous glands are present in the skin which is highly vascularised and helps in respiration in water and on land. Body is divisible into head and trunk. A muscular tongue is present, which is bilobed at the tip and is used in capturing the prey. The alimentary canal consists of oesophagous, stomach, intestine and rectum, which open into the cloaca. The main digestive glands are liver and pancreas. It can respire in water through skin and through lungs on land. Circulatory system is closed with single circulation. RBCs are nucleated. Nervous system is organised into central, peripheral and autonomic. The organs of urinogenital system are kidneys and urinogenital ducts, which open into the cloaca. The male reproductive organ is a pair of testes. The female reproductive organ is a pair of ovaries. A female lays 2500-3000 ova at a time. The fertilisation and development are external. The eggs hatch into tadpoles, which metamorphose into frogs.